Personal Watercraft
Don't conventional motorboats
powered by two-stroke engines pollute the air and water
just as much as do personal watercraft?
No. Personal watercraft
have been proven to discharge more air and water pollutants
than do outboard motorboats powered by similar two-stroke
engines. The reasons for this are threefold: personal watercraft
operate at higher average horsepower than do conventional
motorboats; personal watercraft operate at higher average
throttle settings; and, personal watercraft have higher
annual usage rates than do conventional motorboats. In fact,
the National Marine Manufacturers' Association explained
this phenomenon on their website:
First, we need to recognize that personal watercraft
engines are physically smaller than outboard engines of
the same horsepower. This requires the engine to operate
at higher speeds resulting in higher emissions. The second
reason for higher emissions from personal watercraft is
that they generally are operated closer to full throttle,
resulting in a greater amount of exhaust emissions. (National
Marine Manufacturers' Association, Frequently Asked Questions
About Recreational Boating and Water Quality, October
30, 1998)
Will new direct-injection two-stroke
and four-stroke personal watercraft solve all the problems
associate with the craft?
No. Though direct-injected
(DI) two-stroke engines are cleaner than carbureted two-strokes,
on average they are dirtier than four-stroke engines. For
example, DI engines emit approximately seven times more
total hydrocarbons (THC) than do four-stroke engines. THC
is a key component in the formation of smog. In the case
of formaldehyde, a possible human carcinogen, DI engines
emitted more than both the carbureted two-strokes and four-stroke
engines. While four-strokes are substantially better in
terms of discharging less of some of the most important
pollutants, they do not solve all problems. In the case
of nitrogen oxides and carbon monoxide, four-stroke engines
emit more than DI engines.
The industry has shown no data to prove that new personal
watercraft are any quieter than the older versions. Moreover,
new personal watercraft show no improvements in addressing
safety concerns. For example, the new machines still lack
off-throttle steering. Given the industry's typical advertising
style, new technology personal watercraft are unlikely to
be operated in any manner other than the status quo - as
adrenaline-pumping thrillcraft that are clearly inappropriate
for use in many sensitive public waters.
back
to the Personal Watercraft campaign page
Snowmobiles
Don't snowmobile impacts disappear
with the snowmelt?
No. Pollutants from
snowmobile emissions, including highly persistent polycyclic
aromatic hydrocarbons, are "locked" within the
snowpack. The toxic effects of accumulated pollutants in
the snowpack are magnified during the first few days of
spring, when they are released during snowmelt, causing
elevated acidity levels in surrounding waterways and resulting
in higher death rates for aquatic insects and amphibians.
This release of pollutants may have far-reaching consequences
for surrounding watersheds. Acidity fluctuations can disable
a watershed's ability to regulate its own pH level, possibly
triggering system-wide problems and resulting in a long-term
alteration of an entire ecosystem.
Moreover, change of season does nothing to mitigate the
extremely high amount of air pollution produced by snowmobiles.
In Yellowstone, rangers must wear respirators to stave off
poisoning by carbon monoxide, benzene, and formaldehyde
spewed from the tailpipes of snowmobiles.
What's more, snowmobiles stress wildlife such as bison
who must conserve as much energy as possible during the
winter months. When bison use snowmobile trails, they are
forced off by snowmobiles. Groomed trails also allow predators
such as bobcats and coyotes access to territory previously
inaccessible to them. This access to new territory places
additional stress and competition for resources upon other
species, such as the endangered lynx.
If snowmobiles are phased out
of the National Parks, will elderly and disabled people
still be able to experience the parks in the winter?
Yes. Cleaner, quieter
snowcoaches are readily available to take the place of snowmobiles
in parks such as Yellowstone and Grand Teton. A recent study
found a group of snowmobiles to be audible up to 11,000
feet from their location, while most snowcoaches were audible
from only two thousand feet. Snowcoach trips cost less than
a snowmobile rental, and they provide safe, comfortable
transit through the park for all who do not wish to venture
on foot or skis. Even better, snowcoach passengers can learn
more about the parks with the escort of a knowledgeable
park interpreter on each trip. Transition from snowmobiles
to snowcoaches would actually make the parks accessible
to more people who currently stay away to avoid the health
and safety dangers associated with snowmobiles.
back
to the Snowmobiles campaign page
Off-road Vehicles
Aren't public lands managers required
to allow off-road vehicles (ORV) free reign to public lands
that are designated for multiple uses?
No. Most public lands
agencies like the United States Forest Service, Bureau of
Land Management, and others are required to steward the
land while providing for multiple uses. However, all of
these agencies are under legal mandates to also protect
natural, cultural, and historic resources. Off-trail ORV
use threatens and harms wildlife, compacts soil, greatly
increases erosion and sedimentation into creeks and streams,
destroys vegetation, encourages the invasion of non-native
species, and jeopardizes the safety of the operator and
surrounding outdoor recreationists. Public lands managers
have the responsibility to ensure that the thrills of one
small user group do not destroy the land and outdoor experience
for the majority.
The National Park Service, by contrast, does not have a
multiple use mandate. Rather, Congress with the passage
of the Organic Act (16 USC Sec 1) stated that the Park Service's
primary mission is to leave the resources and wildlife under
its care "unimpaired for the enjoyment of future generations."
Courts have consistently ruled that the Organic Act requires
the Park Service to prohibit activities that cause the degradation
of resources and wildlife. Moreover, the courts have stated
that the Park Service has wide latitude to determine which
activities and what level of use (including prohibitions)
are appropriate for the parks.
Isn't ORV use on National Park
beaches a traditional use that should be preserved?
No. Beach driving in
National Parks is inconsistent with the Park Service's mandate
to "leave resources unimpaired for future generations."
Off-road vehicles' large, knobby tires crush small, sand-dwelling
organisms and larger ones like sea turtles and birds who
lay eggs and nest on the shoreline. Beach driving greatly
increases beach erosion, and jeopardizes the safety of swimmers,
sunbathers, as well as those who seek the solitude, natural
sounds, and smells of the beach. Beach driving has existed
for less than a century, whereas traditional fishermen have
been utilizing the beaches for thousands of years.
back
to the Off-Road Vehicles campaign page
Oil and Gas
Drilling
If domestic drilling is increased,
won't the United States become less dependent on foreign
oil?
No. The United States'
total oil reserves represent only a minute fraction of the
amount of oil the nation consumes each day. The United States
can only free itself from dependence on foreign oil by utilizing
renewable fuel sources such as solar and wind power, bioethanol,
biodiesel, and conservation techniques.
Are new drilling technologies
environmentally friendly?
No. Technological advances
in exploratory equipment do not always mean improvements
in environmental impacts. In recent years, three-dimensional
imaging has replaced two-dimensional imaging (2-D) in seismic
exploration because of greater accuracy in studying geological
areas. A 1998 Environmental Impact Statement from the Bureau
of Land Management states, "Because three-dimensional
seismic involves more tight turns by heavy equipment than
does 2-D, the potential for vegetation damage is greater."
"Directional drilling" or "slant drilling"
- where holes are drilled far from the vertical location
of the oil reservoir and pipes are angled underneath - has
also been touted as "environmentally friendly."
Although directional drilling disturbs less surface area
than does traditional techniques, there is a much higher
possibility of missing the target, thus requiring that the
existing hole be plugged and a new hole drilled. Furthermore,
directional drilling involves considerably longer total
drilling time which increases the amount of air pollution
created by the drill rig and necessary equipment trucks,
increases the length of noise pollution created by the machinery,
and increases the amount of drilling fluids used and waste
produced.
back
to the Oil and Gas Drilling campaign page
Global Warming
Is global warming really happening?
Yes. The overwhelming
majority of scientists agree that global warming is a reality.
A report released in January 2001 by nearly 1,000 scientists
representing the United Nations' Intergovernmental Panel
on Climate Change (IPCC) concluded that:
- New analyses of data show that the increase in temperature
in the 20th century is the largest of any century during
the past 1,000 years.
- Recent regional climate changes, particularly temperature
increases, have already affected more than 420 physical
processes and plant and animal species on all continents.
- Projected temperature increases due to greenhouse gas
pollution is likely to be between 2.5 and 10.4 oF in the
next 100 years - much larger than the observed changes
during the 20th century, and without precedent during
at least the last 10,000 years.
back
to the Wildlife and Habitat campaign page
Are human activities a significant
contributor to global warming?
Yes. According to the
latest report from the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate
Change, "There is new and stronger evidence that most
of the warming observed over the last 50 years is attributable
to human activities." Furthermore, the panel concluded
that human influences will continue to increase the concentration
of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere throughout the 21st
century, and that this climate change will persist for many
centuries.
Will solutions to global warming
bankrupt our economy?
No. In fact, most of
the solutions to global warming, such as increased fuel
efficiency and the use of renewable fuels and power sources
to replace fossil fuels, will strengthen our economy. Increased
efficiency will save consumers money, which leads to increased
wealth and jobs. Development of US-based renewable energy
industries will also create jobs and help us become more
independent of foreign oil sources.
On the other hand, if we do nothing to slow down global
warming, we can expect increased incidences of heat waves,
droughts, floods, and forest fires, as well as disease and
pestilence outbreaks among plant, animal, and human populations.
These impacts may result in potentially devastating effects
upon most of the critical economic drivers, including the
agriculture, fishing, timber, real estate, insurance, construction,
tourism, and skiing industries. Homeowners, businesses,
and farmers would pay higher rates for insurance, while
consumers would pay more for food, water, and other goods
and services.
Does it take more energy to produce
a gallon of ethanol than the energy value of the ethanol
itself?
No. Studies
by the US Department of Agriculture (USDA) and Argonne
National Laboratory definitively demonstrate that ethanol
has a positive energy balance by at least a ratio of 1.34.
Only one researcher has concluded that ethanol's energy
balance is negative (David Pimentel), and his results are
soundly refuted by these studies. In a recent presentation,
Dr. Hosein Shapouri of the USDA concluded that even Pimentel's
latest study is based on out-of-date and inaccurate numbers.
back
to the Clean Transportation campaign page
What
is the number one cause of global warming?
Greenhouse gas
emissions from the burning of fossil fuels.
Global warming is caused by greenhouse gas pollution which
changes the delicate balance of the earth’s atmosphere
by building up and trapping heat to alter the climate. Over
80 percent of the greenhouse gas pollution emitted each
year comes from burning fossil fuels to produce electricity
and to power cars, trucks, and other vehicles. Fossil fuels
include coal, natural gas, and oil (which is made into fuels
such as gasoline, diesel, jet fuel, etc.).
back to
the Ford campaign page
Fast Ferries
Why do fast ferries pollute more
than cars or buses?
Cars and transit buses have become 97 percent cleaner in
recent decades, but ferries continue to operate on unregulated
marine diesel engines that generate far more air pollution
per passenger mile.
Can fast ferries become environmentally
friendly?
With cleaner non-diesel fuels and engine technologies,
low-wake hulls, careful routing, and slower speeds, ferries
can become more environmentally friendly.
back
to the Fast Ferries campaign page
Ship Emmissions
Why worry about emissions from
ships?
While transporting consumer goods around the world, large
ocean-going vessels release huge quantities of toxic air
pollutants that cause acid rain, global warming, smog, and
harm to public health.
What can be done to reduce shipping
pollution?
The United States must take the lead in setting strict
air quality standards for large ocean-going vessels under
the Clean Air Act and promote the use of clean fuels and
engine technologies at sea and in port.
back
to the Ship Emissions campaign page
Cruise Ships
Do cruise ships really cause environmental
harm?
Cruise ships are like floating cities that generate mass
quantities of wastewater, solid waste such as food and garbage,
and air pollution. These ships routinely violate the law
by dumping dirty water and trash into our oceans and coastal
waters without regard to the environment.
Isn't the cruise industry setting
strict new environmental standards for itself?
Cruise industry voluntary standards may be a step in the
right direction, but carry no significant penalties or independent
verification. Only third-party oversight and mandatory regulations
will help ensure environmental protection from cruise ship
pollution.
back
to the Cruise Ship campaign page
Ship-whale
Strikes
Why are ship-whale strikes such
a concern?
Around the world, ship and ferry strikes are causing the
needless and bloody deaths of alarming numbers of whales,
many of them young whales and newborn calves. The death
toll is projected to rise with the expansion of global shipping,
vacation cruising, and fast-ferry systems.
What types of whales are threatened?
Ship and ferry collisions pose a serious threat to highly
endangered right whales, Western Pacific gray whales, and
blue whales. When combined with other human-related causes
of death, ship strikes could imperil the long-term survival
of more populous humpback, fin, and California gray whales.
back
to the Ship-Whale Strikes campaign page
